Allusions

Allusions

Once Upon A Time In America contains a number of references to cinematic, literary, and artistic works:

Gangster films
Degas's dancers

 


Gangster flms

The most obvious allusions in the film are to the Hollywood gangster and crime films of the 1930s through to the 50s. The film is Leone's homage to the gangster film just as Once Upon ATime In The West is is homage to the western. Christopher Frayling has listed the citations:

from the Chinese theatre (The Lady from Shanghai, 1948) to the contract killing (The Killers, 1946) to the gangster revisiting his childhood neighbourhood (Angels with Dirty Faces, 1938; Dead End, 1937); with one protagonist feeling nostalgic about the anarchic early days (High Sierra, 1941), the other becoming increasingly megalomaniac (White Heat, 1949) and both having to confront a complicated new world of unions and politics (Bullets or Ballots, 1936). The suitcase at the subway station recalled Cry of the City (1948) and The Killing (1956); Noodles' relationship with Deborah resembled Eddie Bartlett's with Jean Sherman in The Roaring Twenties (1939), and the elderly Noodles' arrival at Senator Bailey's Long Island party mirrored Police Sergeant Bannion's arrival at the affluent mansion of Mike Legarna, head of the crime syndicate, in The Big Heat (1953). The switching of the babies (We're like the Lord God Almighty') chimed with the mid-1930s 'moral' cycle of gangster films, where the roots of gangsterdom - nature or nurture - were explored. The misogyny of the gang, who behave like overgrown little boys obsessed with their cocks, belongs to a long tradition: from Tom Powers pushing a grapefruit into Kitty's face (The Public Enemy, 1931) to Vince emptying a coffee percolator over Debbie's face in The Big Heat. The inscription 'Your men will fall by the sword' was a variation on the opening of Little Caesar (1930): 'For they that take the sword shall perish by the sword' (Matthew 25.52).

Christopher Frayling, Sergio Leone: Something To Do With Death (Faber and Faber 2000), pp. 422-423.

 

Some of these seem tenuous connections. Attributing the contract killing specifically to The Killers, for example, seems unjustified since there are many crime films that feature contract killing.

But Angels with Dirty Faces is a definite reference. That film follows two boyhood friends as they grow up. One becomes a gangster while the other goes straight as a priest.


Song of Songs

The second time young Noodles tries to spy on Deborah dancing, she catches him and makes him sit while she reads from the Song of Songs, interspersing her terse comments. Below is Deborah's recitation of part of chapter 5 of the Song of Songs, which is the seventeenth book of the Tanakh, or Hebrew Bible. Alongside is the original version, from the 1917 Jewish Publication Society of America version, which is the most common translation. I have not been able to find a translation the same as the one Deborah reads. Since the film's sequence probably takes place before then, Deborah either has an earlier translation or is translating it herself.

My beloved is white and ruddy.
His skin is as the most fine gold.
His cheeks are as a bed of spices.
Even though he hasn't washed since last December.
His eyes are as the eyes of doves.
His body is as bright ivory.
His legs are as pillars of marble.
In pants so dirty they stand by themselves.
He is altogether lovable.
But he'll always be a two-bit punk.
So he'll never be my beloved. 
What a shame.
                                                      (PDF copy)
10 'My beloved is white and ruddy, 
pre-eminent above ten thousand. 
11 His head is as the most fine gold, 
his locks are curled, and black as a raven. 
12 His eyes are like doves beside the water-brooks;
washed with milk, and fitly set. 
13 His cheeks are as a bed of spices,
as banks of sweet herbs; 
his lips are as lilies, dropping with flowing myrrh. 
14 His hands are as rods of gold set with beryl; 
his body is as polished ivory 
overlaid with sapphires. 
15 His legs are as pillars of marble, 
set upon sockets of fine gold; 
his aspect is like Lebanon, excellent as the cedars. 
16 His mouth is most sweet; 
yea, he is altogether lovely. 
This is my beloved, and this is my friend, 
O daughters of Jerusalem.'

Later as adults, after Noodles and Deborah have dinner at the seaside restaurant, they sit on the sand and talk. Noodles tells her that thinking about her was what got him through his time in prison. And he recites chapter 7 of the Song of Songs, reproduced below. Again the original is alongside. Noodles's version is much different from the 1917 JPS Tanakh, which may be a combination of a faulty memory and also doing his own translation.

How beautiful are your feet
In sandals, O prince's daughter
Your navel is a bowl
Well-rounded with no lack of wine
Your belly, a heap of wheat
Surrounded with lilies
Your breasts,
Clusters of grapes
Your breath, 
Sweet-scented as apples
Nobody's gonna love you the way I loved you.

                                                     (PDF copy)
2 How beautiful are thy steps
in sandals, O prince's daughter! 
The roundings of thy thighs are like
the links of a chain, 
the work of the hands of a skilled workman. 
3 Thy navel is like a round goblet,
wherein no mingled wine is wanting; 
thy belly is like a heap of wheat
set about with lilies. 
4 Thy two breasts are like two fawns 
that are twins of a gazelle. 
5 Thy neck is as a tower of ivory; 

8 This thy stature is like to a palm-tree,
and thy breasts to clusters of grapes. 
9 I said: 'I will climb up into the palm-tree, 
I will take hold of the branches thereof; 
and let thy breasts be as clusters of the vine,
and the smell of thy countenance like apples; 

Martin Eden

In one scene, the young Noodles locks himself in a toilet and reads a battered copy of Martin Eden by Jack London. The camera deliberately reveals the book's title. Here is a summary of the book:

A novel by Jack London, published in 1909. Martin Eden, a labourer who was once a sailor, has a questioning mind and has undertaken a programme of self-education. He aspires to a higher sort of life, such as that personified by Ruth Moore, a college graduate and the daughter of a wealthy family. He works hard to succeed as a writer, and his work reflects the influence of Herbert Spencer's ethical theories. Although his friend Russ Brissenden, a socialist poet, believes in his work, he has no success. When a newspaper calls him a socialist Ruth deserts him. Then one of his books brings him both fame and money. Ruth seeks him out, but he realizes her true nature and turns away from her. He becomes depressed, and Russ's suicide makes matters worse. He grows to despise the society that has finally honoured him, and he commits suicide on a sea voyage.

The Wordsworth Companion to Literature in English (Wordsworth Editions 1994) p. 599.

Noodles shares Martin's aspiration for self-improvement, though Noodles does not work hard at it. For both, this aspiration is motivated by a woman. A further parallel is Noodles'/Martin's melancholy over Max's/Russ's suicide.

In a recent novel, Umberto Eco writes:

Jack London's Martin Eden caught my eye, and I turned mechanically to the last sentence, as if my fingers knew what they would find there. Martin Eden, at the height of his fame, kills himself by slipping out through the porthole of his steamer cabin into the Pacific, and as he feels the water slowly filling his lungs, he gains, in a final glimmer of lucidity, some understanding, maybe of the meaning of life, but "at the instant he knew, he ceased to know."

Umberto Eco, The Mysterious Flame of Queen Loana (Secker and Warburg 2005), p. 129.

This indicates a slightly different parallel. Martin's final glimmer of understanding is similar to Noodles's in the opium den that ends the film. Does Noodles know, but also cease to know, that Max is not really dead? The final words are similar to a favorite phrase of Leone's: "I say it here, and I deny it here."

 


Degas's dancers

In interviews, Sergio Leone as said that the scene where the young Deborah dances in the backroom of the diner is influenced by Edgar Degas's paintings of ballet dancers.

 
Edgar Degas
Ballet Rehearsal on Stage
1874 Oil on canvas

 

Edgar Degas
Little Fourteen-Year-Old Dancer 
c. 1881 Bronze, silk, satin ribbon, hair

 

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