Allusions
Once Upon A Time In America contains
a number of references to cinematic, literary, and artistic works:
Gangster
flms
The most
obvious allusions in the film are to the Hollywood gangster and crime
films of the 1930s through to the 50s. The film is Leone's homage to
the gangster film just as Once Upon ATime In The West is is homage
to the western. Christopher Frayling has listed the citations:
|
from the Chinese
theatre (The Lady from Shanghai, 1948) to the contract
killing (The Killers, 1946) to the gangster revisiting
his childhood neighbourhood (Angels with Dirty Faces,
1938; Dead End, 1937); with one protagonist feeling nostalgic
about the anarchic early days (High Sierra, 1941), the
other becoming increasingly megalomaniac (White Heat,
1949) and both having to confront a complicated new world of
unions and politics (Bullets or Ballots, 1936). The suitcase
at the subway station recalled Cry of the City (1948)
and The Killing (1956); Noodles' relationship with Deborah
resembled Eddie Bartlett's with Jean Sherman in The Roaring
Twenties (1939), and the elderly Noodles' arrival at Senator
Bailey's Long Island party mirrored Police Sergeant Bannion's
arrival at the affluent mansion of Mike Legarna, head of the
crime syndicate, in The Big Heat (1953). The switching
of the babies (We're like the Lord God Almighty') chimed with
the mid-1930s 'moral' cycle of gangster films, where the roots
of gangsterdom - nature or nurture - were explored. The misogyny
of the gang, who behave like overgrown little boys obsessed
with their cocks, belongs to a long tradition: from Tom Powers
pushing a grapefruit into Kitty's face (The Public Enemy,
1931) to Vince emptying a coffee percolator over Debbie's face
in The Big Heat. The inscription 'Your men will fall
by the sword' was a variation on the opening of Little Caesar
(1930): 'For they that take the sword shall perish by the sword'
(Matthew 25.52).
Christopher Frayling, Sergio
Leone: Something To Do With Death (Faber and Faber 2000),
pp. 422-423.
|
|
Some of these
seem tenuous connections. Attributing the contract killing specifically
to The Killers, for example, seems unjustified since there
are many crime films that feature contract killing.
But Angels
with Dirty Faces is a definite reference. That film follows
two boyhood friends as they grow up. One becomes a gangster while
the other goes straight as a priest.
|
|
Song
of Songs
The second
time young Noodles tries to spy on Deborah dancing, she catches him
and makes him sit while she reads from the Song of Songs, interspersing
her terse comments. Below is Deborah's recitation of part of chapter
5 of the Song of Songs, which is the seventeenth book of the Tanakh,
or Hebrew Bible. Alongside is the original version, from the 1917 Jewish
Publication Society of America version, which is the most common translation.
I have not been able to find a translation the same as the one Deborah
reads. Since the film's sequence probably takes place before then, Deborah
either has an earlier translation or is translating it herself.
My beloved is white and ruddy.
His skin is as the most fine gold.
His cheeks are as a bed of spices.
Even though he hasn't washed since last December.
His eyes are as the eyes of doves.
His body is as bright ivory.
His legs are as pillars of marble.
In pants so dirty they stand by themselves.
He is altogether lovable.
But he'll always be a two-bit punk.
So he'll never be my beloved.
What a shame.
(PDF copy)
|
10 'My beloved is white and ruddy,
pre-eminent above ten thousand.
11 His head is as the most fine gold,
his locks are curled, and black as a raven.
12 His eyes are like doves beside the water-brooks;
washed with milk, and fitly set.
13 His cheeks are as a bed of spices,
as banks of sweet herbs;
his lips are as lilies, dropping with flowing myrrh.
14 His hands are as rods of gold set with beryl;
his body is as polished ivory
overlaid with sapphires.
15 His legs are as pillars of marble,
set upon sockets of fine gold;
his aspect is like Lebanon, excellent as the cedars.
16 His mouth is most sweet;
yea, he is altogether lovely.
This is my beloved, and this is my friend,
O daughters of Jerusalem.'
|
Later
as adults, after Noodles and Deborah have dinner at the seaside restaurant,
they sit on the sand and talk. Noodles tells her that thinking about
her was what got him through his time in prison. And he recites chapter
7 of the Song of Songs, reproduced below. Again the original is alongside.
Noodles's version is much different from the 1917 JPS Tanakh,
which may be a combination of a faulty memory and also doing his own
translation.
How beautiful are your feet
In sandals, O prince's daughter
Your navel is a bowl
Well-rounded with no lack of wine
Your belly, a heap of wheat
Surrounded with lilies
Your breasts,
Clusters of grapes
Your breath,
Sweet-scented as apples
Nobody's gonna love you the way I loved you.
(PDF copy)
|
2 How beautiful are thy steps
in sandals, O prince's daughter!
The roundings of thy thighs are like
the links of a chain,
the work of the hands of a skilled workman.
3 Thy navel is like a round goblet,
wherein no mingled wine is wanting;
thy belly is like a heap of wheat
set about with lilies.
4 Thy two breasts are like two fawns
that are twins of a gazelle.
5 Thy neck is as a tower of ivory;
8 This thy stature is like to a palm-tree,
and thy breasts to clusters of grapes.
9 I said: 'I will climb up into the palm-tree,
I will take hold of the branches thereof;
and let thy breasts be as clusters of the vine,
and the smell of thy countenance like apples;
|
Martin
Eden
In one
scene, the young Noodles locks himself in a toilet and reads a battered
copy of Martin Eden by Jack London. The camera deliberately reveals
the book's title. Here is a summary of the book:
|
A novel by Jack
London, published in 1909. Martin Eden, a labourer who was once
a sailor, has a questioning mind and has undertaken a programme
of self-education. He aspires to a higher sort of life, such as
that personified by Ruth Moore, a college graduate and the daughter
of a wealthy family. He works hard to succeed as a writer, and
his work reflects the influence of Herbert Spencer's ethical theories.
Although his friend Russ Brissenden, a socialist poet, believes
in his work, he has no success. When a newspaper calls him a socialist
Ruth deserts him. Then one of his books brings him both fame and
money. Ruth seeks him out, but he realizes her true nature and
turns away from her. He becomes depressed, and Russ's suicide
makes matters worse. He grows to despise the society that has
finally honoured him, and he commits suicide on a sea voyage.
The Wordsworth
Companion to Literature in English (Wordsworth Editions 1994)
p. 599.
|
|
Noodles
shares Martin's aspiration for self-improvement, though Noodles does
not work hard at it. For both, this aspiration is motivated by a woman.
A further parallel is Noodles'/Martin's melancholy over Max's/Russ's
suicide.
In a recent novel, Umberto
Eco writes:
|
Jack
London's Martin Eden caught my eye, and I turned mechanically
to the last sentence, as if my fingers knew what they would find
there. Martin Eden, at the height of his fame, kills himself by
slipping out through the porthole of his steamer cabin into the
Pacific, and as he feels the water slowly filling his lungs, he
gains, in a final glimmer of lucidity, some understanding, maybe
of the meaning of life, but "at the instant he knew, he ceased
to know."
Umberto Eco, The
Mysterious Flame of Queen Loana (Secker and Warburg 2005),
p. 129.
|
This
indicates a slightly different parallel. Martin's final glimmer of understanding
is similar to Noodles's in the opium den that ends the film. Does Noodles
know, but also cease to know, that Max is not really dead? The final
words are similar to a favorite phrase of Leone's: "I say it here, and
I deny it here."
Degas's
dancers
In interviews,
Sergio Leone as said that the scene where the young Deborah dances in
the backroom of the diner is influenced by Edgar Degas's paintings of
ballet dancers.
 |
 |
| |
Edgar Degas
Ballet Rehearsal on Stage
1874 Oil on canvas
|
|
|

Edgar Degas
Little Fourteen-Year-Old Dancer
c. 1881 Bronze, silk, satin ribbon, hair
|
Email webmaster@onceuponatimeinamerica.net
|